Superman

(Difference between revisions)Superman is the creation of two teenagers from Cleveland, Ohio.  Jerry Siegel, the son of a Jewish immigrant from Lithuania, was the writer, collaborating with his friend Joseph Shuster, a recent immigrant from Canada, who did the artwork.  According to typical accounts, both boys had created Superman as a result of shyness in school; both were awkward and unpopular, and the creation of Clark Kent and his super alter-ego was meant as a way to correct the deficiencies.  However, recent authors had made a case for a more profound reason for Superman's creation: on June 2, 1932, Jerry's father died as a result of an armed robbery in Cleveland, either from gunshot wounds or a heart attack; Superman was the creation of a young man who wanted to have someone powerful enough to right all wrongs. [http://www.usatoday.com/life/books/news/2008-08-25-superman-creators_N.htm ''USA Today'' Online] The boys' first attempt at publishing their character would occur a year later, with a boast of "the most astounding fiction character of all time" on the cover, as Superman comes to the rescue of someone at the mercy of an armed robber.Superman was the creation of two teenagers from Cleveland, Ohio: Jerry Siegel and Joseph Shuster, both children of Jewish immigrants.  They were students at Glenville High School when they met in 1931, a pair of shy, awkward and unpopular kids who shared an interest in the adventure and science fiction stories of the pulp magazines of the day, and comic strips, specifically a genre called the adventure comic, such as Phillip Nolan's ''Buck Rogers'', Alex Raymond's ''Flash Gordon'', and Edgar Rice Burroughs' ''Tarzan''.  Jerry was the writer, submitting articles for the school newspaper.  Joe was the artist, his illustrations complementing Jerry's work.  The pair not only developed into a good friendship, but into a powerful collaboration as well; one would go to the others house each night to discuss, plan, sketch, and hatch out new stories and refine current ones.  Their plan was to create a comic strip and live comfortably on the fame and fortune it would provide, but two events would curtail it considerably: the [[Great Depression]], which threw millions of Americans out of work, and the death of Jerry's father on June 2, 1932, as a result of an armed robber.During that period of time comics were simply several-panel drawings presented in "strips", with such well-known titles as ''Blondie'' by Chic Young and ''Thimble Theater starring Popeye'' by Elzie Segar.  In addition to light-hearted "funnies", as most of them were called, there existed a genre called the adventure comic: Phillip Nolan's ''Buck Rogers'', Alex Raymond's ''Flash Gordon'', and Edgar Rice Burroughs' ''Tarzan'' were among the well-known and most popular of the titles which appeared daily in newspapers and pulp magazines, and Siegel and Shuster read them voraciously, getting inspiration for their own character.  Eventually, they decided on an alien from a doomed planet, who appeared on earth "Moses-like", with fantastic strength and abilities, who would fight for the common man. With the name "Superman" bestowed on him, they intended to follow in the same direction that other comic artists have done: do a daily and Sunday strip for syndication in newspapers.  Their efforts at soliciting the syndicates, however, met with rejection at every turn.In 1932 the boys created a periodical, titled simply ''Science Fiction''.  An anthology magazine, it was by mail-order only, and was printed off a mimeograph machine the boys had access to.  The January, 1933 issue had a story called "The Reign of the Super-Man"http://archive.org/stream/ReignOfTheSuperman/RSM#page/n0/mode/2up, in which the central character was a bald villain who used his mental powers for personal gain.  "As a science-fiction fan, I knew of the various themes in the field," Siegel said.  "The superman theme has been one of the themes ever since Samson and Hercules; and I just sat down and wrote a story of that type—only in this story, the Superman was a villain."http://ohdannyboy.blogspot.com/2012/06/1933s-reign-of-superman-first-superman.html  But one medium held some promise.  In the news stands at the time, alongside the papers and the magazines, was a new format: the comic book.  In it's original form, the comic was simply reprints of the daily and Sunday strips, and at 10 cents it was a cheap way for newspapers to gain additional money.  Among the early entrepreneurs who saw a potential was Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson, who had by 1935 published ''New Fun'', a comic book with original material in it - possibly the first one of its kind - and had founded National Allied Publications, the precursor to D.C. Comics.  His intention was to continue creating original works, but wanted people who could work cheap, or were young and rather naive.  Siegel and Shuster were hired as storyboard artists, and the pair would create several characters for the company, among them "Slam Bradley", a private eye and the first star of ''Detective Comics'' #1 in 1937.A few months after publication, their idea of a powerful villain evolved into a powerful hero.  They were familiar with the legendary strongmen of mythology, so naturally their hero would have physical, rather than mental, power.  Eventually, they decided on an alien from a doomed planet, who appeared on earth "Moses-like", with fantastic strength and abilities, who would fight for the common man; the death of Jerry's father also weighed in, with the result that their new character would appear in the nick of time, someone powerful enough to right all wrongs[http://www.usatoday.com/life/books/news/2008-08-25-superman-creators_N.htm ''USA Today'' Online].  The boys' first attempt at publishing their character would occur a year later, with a boast of "the most astounding fiction character of all time" on the cover, as the hero comes to the rescue of someone at the mercy of an armed robber.  With the name "Superman" bestowed on him, they intended to follow in the same direction that other comic artists have done: do a daily and Sunday strip for syndication in newspapers.  Despite being ground-breaking - no previously-published fictional character had even come remotely close to what would eventually be called a "super hero" - the boys were repeatedly rejected by the publishers they had submitted it to.But one medium held some promise.  In the news stands at the time, alongside the papers and the magazines, was a new format: the comic book.  In it's original form, the comic was simply reprints of the daily and Sunday strips, and at 10 cents it was a cheap way for newspapers to gain additional money.  Among the early entrepreneurs who saw a potential was Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson, the founder of National Allied Publications, the precursor to D.C. Comics.  In 1935 he had published ''New Fun'', a comic book with all-original material in it.  His intention was to continue creating original works, but there was a catch: he wanted people who could work cheap, such as struggling artists who were young and rather naive.  Siegel and Shuster were hired as storyboard artists, and the pair would create several characters for the company, among them "Slam Bradley", a private eye and the first star of ''Detective Comics'' #1 in 1937.A year later, new management took control of National Allied Publications; ''Detective Comics'' was a hit and they wanted another one, and they decided to take a chance on Siegel and Shuster's creation.  ''Action Comics'', the company's fourth title and intended to be an anthology of multiple stories within one issue, was sent to the stands in April, 1938; on the cover was Superman, appearing before the public for the first time brandishing an automobile over his head, despite having been placed there by accident as a result of a publishing deadline.http://www.nytimes.com/2000/12/13/nyregion/jack-liebowitz-comics-publisher-dies-at-100.html  The initial printing of 200,000 had quickly sold out; the number sold would quickly rise into the millions within months.A year later, new management took control of National Allied Publications; ''Detective Comics'' was a hit and they wanted another one, and they decided to take a chance on Siegel and Shuster's creation.  ''Action Comics'', the company's fourth title and intended to be an anthology of multiple stories within one issue, was sent to the stands in April, 1938; on the cover was Superman, appearing before the public for the first time brandishing an automobile over his head, despite having been placed there by accident as a result of a publishing deadline.http://www.nytimes.com/2000/12/13/nyregion/jack-liebowitz-comics-publisher-dies-at-100.html  The initial printing of 200,000 had quickly sold out; the number sold would quickly rise into the millions within months.

Superman is a fictional character created in the mid-1930s by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster, and currently published by DC Comics under a variety of titles. The first comic book superhero, Superman spawed a pantheon of other similar characters, and a comics industry in which Superman alone was selling at well over a million copies as early as 1942[1]; he would later star in books, radio, animation, television, and film. Superman is seen as a symbol of America, reflected in his red and blue costume and marketing material describing his mission as the protector of "truth, justice, and the American way".

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Superman is the last son of Krypton, a distant planet much larger than Earth with a red sun. Raised by two Methodist Kansas farmers, Superman was blessed by his alien heritage with great powers. In his initial appearances, his power set consisted of being "faster than a speeding bullet", "more powerful than a locomotive", and "able to leap tall buildings in a single bound". Since then, his powers have been expanded to include incredible strength, super speed, flight, invulnerability, super breath, super intelligence, heat-ray eyes, freezing breath, passing through matter, unaided interstellar travel, and various forms of superhuman senses (super-hearing; x-ray, heat, telescopic, and microscopic vision) - Superman's excessive and ever-changing powers are often the subject of criticism or parody. He is severely weakened by green kryptonite, can be reduced to normal human levels of power by light from a red sun, and is vulnerable to magic.

He lives a secret double life, posing as the "mild-mannered reporter" Clark Kent. He specifically works in the news media so he can more easily hear about and attend the scenes of crimes. In most continuities, Superman is romantically involved with Lois Lane, a fellow reporter, and his best friend is teenage cub reporter, later photographer, Jimmy Olsen.

Superman was the creation of two teenagers from Cleveland, Ohio: Jerry Siegel and Joseph Shuster, both children of Jewish immigrants. They were students at Glenville High School when they met in 1931, a pair of shy, awkward and unpopular kids who shared an interest in the adventure and science fiction stories of the pulp magazines of the day, and comic strips, specifically a genre called the adventure comic, such as Phillip Nolan's Buck Rogers, Alex Raymond's Flash Gordon, and Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan. Jerry was the writer, submitting articles for the school newspaper. Joe was the artist, his illustrations complementing Jerry's work. The pair not only developed into a good friendship, but into a powerful collaboration as well; one would go to the others house each night to discuss, plan, sketch, and hatch out new stories and refine current ones. Their plan was to create a comic strip and live comfortably on the fame and fortune it would provide, but two events would curtail it considerably: the Great Depression, which threw millions of Americans out of work, and the death of Jerry's father on June 2, 1932, as a result of an armed robber.

In 1932 the boys created a periodical, titled simply Science Fiction. An anthology magazine, it was by mail-order only, and was printed off a mimeograph machine the boys had access to. The January, 1933 issue had a story called "The Reign of the Super-Man"[2], in which the central character was a bald villain who used his mental powers for personal gain. "As a science-fiction fan, I knew of the various themes in the field," Siegel said. "The superman theme has been one of the themes ever since Samson and Hercules; and I just sat down and wrote a story of that type—only in this story, the Superman was a villain."[3]

A few months after publication, their idea of a powerful villain evolved into a powerful hero. They were familiar with the legendary strongmen of mythology, so naturally their hero would have physical, rather than mental, power. Eventually, they decided on an alien from a doomed planet, who appeared on earth "Moses-like", with fantastic strength and abilities, who would fight for the common man; the death of Jerry's father also weighed in, with the result that their new character would appear in the nick of time, someone powerful enough to right all wrongs[4]. The boys' first attempt at publishing their character would occur a year later, with a boast of "the most astounding fiction character of all time" on the cover, as the hero comes to the rescue of someone at the mercy of an armed robber. With the name "Superman" bestowed on him, they intended to follow in the same direction that other comic artists have done: do a daily and Sunday strip for syndication in newspapers. Despite being ground-breaking - no previously-published fictional character had even come remotely close to what would eventually be called a "super hero" - the boys were repeatedly rejected by the publishers they had submitted it to.

But one medium held some promise. In the news stands at the time, alongside the papers and the magazines, was a new format: the comic book. In it's original form, the comic was simply reprints of the daily and Sunday strips, and at 10 cents it was a cheap way for newspapers to gain additional money. Among the early entrepreneurs who saw a potential was Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson, the founder of National Allied Publications, the precursor to D.C. Comics. In 1935 he had published New Fun, a comic book with all-original material in it. His intention was to continue creating original works, but there was a catch: he wanted people who could work cheap, such as struggling artists who were young and rather naive. Siegel and Shuster were hired as storyboard artists, and the pair would create several characters for the company, among them "Slam Bradley", a private eye and the first star of Detective Comics #1 in 1937.

A year later, new management took control of National Allied Publications; Detective Comics was a hit and they wanted another one, and they decided to take a chance on Siegel and Shuster's creation. Action Comics, the company's fourth title and intended to be an anthology of multiple stories within one issue, was sent to the stands in April, 1938; on the cover was Superman, appearing before the public for the first time brandishing an automobile over his head, despite having been placed there by accident as a result of a publishing deadline.[5] The initial printing of 200,000 had quickly sold out; the number sold would quickly rise into the millions within months.

Due to the requirements of World War II, scrap paper was among the things needed for the war effort, which resulted in many comic books being recycled; as a result, only 100 examples of Action Comics No. 1 are known to exist. "It's the Holy Grail of comic books," said comic expert Stephen Fishler, referring to the recent placing of one on the auction block. "This is the one that started it all. There was no such thing as a super hero before it. No flying man. Comics weren't even that popular. It's the single most important event in comic book history." [6][7] The first example of Superman in comic form - indeed, the first comic superhero ever printed - Action Comics No. 1 in "fine" condition can fetch upwards of $125,000 at auction [1]; several examples have fetched more than $1,000,000. [8]

In 2011, DC Comics have stated that Superman intends to renounce his U.S. citizenship before the United Nations in Action Comics No. 900, “I’m tired of having my actions construed as instruments of U.S. policy … ‘truth, justice and the American way’ - it’s not enough anymore.” DC Comics issued a statement saying "Superman announces his intention to put a global focus on his never-ending battle, but he remains, as always, committed to his adopted home..." [9] Superman, a symbol of American exceptionalism, now leads moral relativism by joining the “blame America first” league, however, since Superman is an alien from the planet krypton. The Superman series, along with every other ongoing DC series, has been relaunched as part of "The New 52" reboot, thus eliminating all previous DC canon, including the renunciation of Superman's American identity.

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Finland

(Difference between revisions)|name          =''Suomi''
''Finland''|map         =Finland rel96.jpg|map2          =Finland location.png|flag         =Flag of Finland.png|arms         =Arms of Finland.png|government =Parliamentary Democracy|pop         =5,296,128 (2007)|gdp-year =$193.491 billion (2005)|gdp-pc         =$40,197 (2005)'''Republic of Finland''' (''Suomi'' or ''Suomen tasavalta'' in Finnish, ''Republiken Finland'' in Swedish) is a country of northern [[Europe]] known for its largely [[social democracy|social democratic]] economic system. The Finnish [[conservative]] party, the [[National Coalition]] led by [[Jyrki Katainen]], is its principal conservative organization.The state capital is [[Helsinki]] and the principal exports are machines, electronics (for example cellphones) and forestry products. [[Finnish]] is the principal language spoken, a [[Finno-Ugric]] language.  Like many nations that do international business, or have a strong tourist trade, many Finns speak English to facilitate communication with other countries. The second official language is Swedish, which has the same status as Finnish in the country. Finland is known as "the land of lakes".[[File:Mantyluoto, Pori, Finland..jpg|thumb|left|Mäntyluoto, Pori.]]The area of Finland is approximately 338 000 square kilometers, with a north-south axis of 890 kilometers. Most of the landscape is covered with lakes and forests. Finland is often called the "Land of Thousands of Lakes", which is true, because the number of lakes in the country exceeds 188 000, of which about 56 000 have an area of one hectare or more. In the sea there are more than 3 000 islands. Cultivated land and habitation only account for 17% of the land area, rest being mainly [[Norway spruce]] forests.Finland is bound by [[Sweden]] in the Northwest, [[Norway]] in the North, [[Russia]] in the East, the [[Gulf of Finland]] in the South and the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] in the West.*Population (September 2007): 5.29 million.*Population growth rate (2006): 0.4%.*Ethnic groups: Finns, Swedes, Lapps, Sami, Roma, Tatars.*Religions: Lutheran 82.5%, Orthodox 1.1%.*Languages: Finnish 91.5%, Swedish 5.5% (both official); small Lapp- (0.03%) and Russian-speaking (0.8%) minorities.*Education: Years compulsory--9. Attendance--almost 100%. Literacy--almost 100%.*Health: Infant mortality rate--2.8/1,000 (2006). Life expectancy--males 75.8 yrs., females 82.8 yrs.*Work force (2.65 million; of which 2.44 million are employed): Public services--32.8%; industry--19%; commerce--15.6%; finance, insurance, and business services--13.8%; agriculture and forestry--4.7%; transport and communications--7.4%; construction--6.7%.[[File:Yyteri beach during Yyteri Beachfutis Finland.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Yyteri beach during Yyteri Beachfutis.]]Finnish people (Finns) are known for their love of nature. Nature is prominent in the works of Finnish artists, such as [[Jean Sibelius]], [[Aki Kaurismäki]], [[Alvar Aalto]]. The great masters of Finnish literature include [[Mika Waltari]], [[Väinö Linna]], [[Johan Ludvig Runeberg]]. Finland is a bi-lingual country and has produced its literary heritage in both Finnish and Swedish. The beloved Moomintrolls were created by the writer and graphic artist Tove Jansson.Another important facet of traditional Finnish culture is the love of the Finnish [[sauna]].Northern Finland is home to a culture called the [[Sami people]], or [[Laplanders]], which are known for wearing red clothing and herding reindeer.  Santa Claus is based on this culture.They are considered a high context culture.{|class="wikitable" align=right border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 10pt; margin-right: 1pt"!colspan=4|Population of Finland, 1750–2000{{cite book | last=Aunesluoma | first=Juhana | coauthors=Heikkonen, Esko; Ojakoski, Matti | title=Lukiolaisen yhteiskuntatieto | language=Finnish | publisher=SanomaWSOY|WSOY | date=2006}}!Year!!Population!!Year!!Population||1750||align=right|421,000||1880||align=right|2,060,800||1760||align=right|491,000||1890||align=right|2,380,100||1770||align=right|561,000||1900||align=right|2,655,900||1780||align=right|663,000||1910||align=right|2,943,400||1790||align=right|705,600||1920||align=right|3,147,600||1800||align=right|832,700||1930||align=right|3,462,700||1810||align=right|863,300||1940||align=right|3,695,617||1820||align=right|1,177,500||1950||align=right|4,029,803||1830||align=right|1,372,100||1960||align=right|4,446,222||1840||align=right|1,445,600||1970||align=right|4,598,336||1850||align=right|1,636,900||1980||align=right|4,787,778||1860||align=right|1,746,700||1990||align=right|4,998,478||1870||align=right|1,768,800||2000||align=right|5,181,000Finland currently numbers 5,302,778 inhabitants and has an average population density of 17 inhabitants per square kilometer. This makes it, after Norway and Iceland, the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Finland's population has always been concentrated in the southern parts of the country, a phenomenon even more pronounced after 20th century urbanization.The share of foreign citizens in Finland is 2.5 percent being among the lowest of the European Union countries. Most of them are from Russia, Estonia and Sweden.[[File:Helsinki Lutheran Cathedral Finland.jpg|thumb|left|Helsinki, Lutheran Cathedral.]]Most Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland (81.7 percent). With approximately 4.6 million members, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland is one of the largest Lutheran churches in the world. A minority belong to the Finnish Orthodox Church (1.1 percent; see [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]). Other Protestantism denominations and the Roman Catholic Church in Finland are significant.The main Lutheran and Orthodox churches are constitutional national churches of Finland with special roles such as in state ceremonies and schools. A university degree in theology is compulsory for Lutheran priests. Representatives at Lutheran Church assemblies are selected in church elections every four years.Even though the membership in main Lutheran church is high, the population is not highly religious. Polls suggest that 28-60% of the population to be either agnostics or atheists. http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_atheist.htmlElected for a 6-year term, the president: *Handles foreign policy, except for certain international agreements and decisions of peace or war, which must be submitted to parliament, and EU relations, which are handled by the prime minister; *Is commander in chief of the armed forces and has wide decree and appointive powers; *May initiate legislation, block legislation by pocket veto, and call extraordinary parliamentary sessions; and *Appoints the prime minister and the rest of the cabinet (Council of State). The Council of State is made up of the prime minister and ministers for the various departments of the central government as well as an ex officio member, the Chancellor of Justice. Ministers are not obliged to be members of the Eduskunta and need not be formally identified with any political party. The president may, upon proposal of the prime minister and after having heard the parliamentary groups, order parliament to be dissolved, and a new election held. Constitutionally, the 200-member, unicameral Eduskunta is the supreme authority in Finland. It may alter the constitution, bring about the resignation of the Council of State, and override presidential vetoes; its acts are not subject to judicial review. Legislation may be initiated by the president, the Council of State, or one of the Eduskunta members. The Eduskunta is elected on the basis of proportional representation. All persons 18 or older, except military personnel on active duty and a few high judicial officials, are eligible for election. The regular parliamentary term is 4 years; however, the president may dissolve the Eduskunta and order new elections at the request of the prime minister and after consulting the speaker of parliament. The judicial system is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and special courts, with responsibility for litigation between the public and the administrative organs of the state. Finnish law is codified. Although there is no writ of habeas corpus or bail, the maximum period of pretrial detention has been reduced to 4 days. The Finnish court system consists of local courts, regional appellate courts, a Supreme Court, and a Supreme Administrative Court. ====Administrative divisions====[[File:Gulf of finland.jpg|thumb|Gulf of Finland.]]Finland consists of five provinces and the self-ruled province of the Aland Islands. Below the provincial level, the country is divided into cities, townships, and communes administered by municipal and communal councils elected by proportional representation once every 4 years. At the provincial level, the five mainland provinces are administered by provincial boards composed of civil servants, each headed by a governor. The boards are responsible to the Ministry of the Interior and play a supervisory and coordinating role within the provinces. The island province of Aland is located near the 60th parallel between Sweden and Finland. It enjoys local autonomy and demilitarized status by virtue of an international convention of 1921, implemented most recently by the Act on Aland Self-Government of 1951. The islands are further distinguished by the fact that they are entirely Swedish-speaking. Government is vested in the provincial council, which consists of 30 delegates elected directly by Aland's citizens.Finland's defense forces consist of 35,000 persons in uniform (26,000 army; 5,000 navy; and 4,000 air force). The country's defense budget equals about 1.3% of GDP. There is universal male conscription under which all men serve from six to 12 months. As of 1995, women were permitted to serve as volunteers. A reserve force ensures that Finland can field 490,000 trained military personnel in case of need. Finland's proportional representation system encourages a multitude of political parties and has resulted in many coalition governments. Political activity by communists was legalized in 1944, and although four major parties have dominated the postwar political arena, none now has a majority position. In elections held in 2007, the Center Party (Keskusta), traditionally representing rural interests, kept its position as the biggest party. The then-opposition Conservative Party, however, came away as the biggest winner, gaining 10 seats and becoming the second-largest political party in the country. The Center then formed a four-party governing coalition with the Conservatives and the Swedish People's Party and the Greens. The Social Democratic Party (SDP) suffered a defeat in these elections and fell to the third position among the big parties. Of the other parties, the True Finns, the Green League, and the Swedish People’s Party were able to gain seats in parliament. The Conservative Party received the portfolios of foreign minister, finance minister, and defense minister, among others, and became an important player after a long interval.===Principal Government Officials===*Prime Minister--Jyrki Katainen*Foreign Minister--Alexander Stubb*Ambassador to the United States--Pekka Lintu*Ambassador to the United Nations--Kirsti LintonenFinland's basic foreign policy goal from the end of the Continuation War with the U.S.S.R. in 1944 until 1991 was to avoid great-power conflicts and to build mutual confidence with the Soviet Union. Although the country was culturally, socially, and politically Western, Finns realized they must live in peace with the U.S.S.R. and take no action that might be interpreted as a security threat. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 opened up dramatic new possibilities for Finland and has resulted in the Finns actively seeking greater participation in Western political and economic structures. Finland joined the European Union in 1995. ====Previous relations with the Soviet Union, and today with Russia==== [[File:Uspenski cathedral Helsinki.jpg|thumb|The Uspenski cathedral of Helsinki; with its golden cumpolas and redbrick façade, the cathedral is one of the clearest symbol of the Russian impact on Finnish history.]]The principal architect of the post-1944 foreign policy of neutrality was J.K. Paasikivi, who was President from 1946 to 1956. Urho Kekkonen, President from 1956 until 1981, further developed this policy, stressing that Finland should be an active rather than a passive neutral. This policy is now popularly known as the "Paasikivi-Kekkonen Line." Finland and the U.S.S.R. signed a peace treaty at Paris in February 1947 limiting the size of Finland's defense forces and providing for the cession to the Soviet Union of the Petsamo area on the Arctic coast, the Karelian Isthmus in southeastern Finland, and other territory along the former eastern border. Another provision, terminated in 1956, leased the Porkkala area near Helsinki to the U.S.S.R. for use as a naval base and gave free access to this area across Finnish territory. The 1947 treaty also called for Finland to pay to the Soviet Union reparations of 300 million gold dollars (amounting to an estimated $570 million in 1952, the year the payments ended). Although an ally of the Soviet Union in World War II, the United States was not a signatory to this treaty because it had not been at war with Finland. In April 1948, Finland signed an Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union. Under this mutual assistance pact, Finland was obligated--with the aid of the Soviet Union, if necessary--to resist armed attacks by Germany or its allies against Finland or against the U.S.S.R. through Finland. At the same time, the agreement recognized Finland's desire to remain outside great-power conflicts. This agreement was renewed for 20 years in 1955, in 1970, and again in 1983 to the year 2003, although the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union led to the agreement's abrogation. The Finns responded cautiously in 1990-91 to the decline of Soviet power and the U.S.S.R.'s subsequent dissolution. They unilaterally abrogated restrictions imposed by the 1947 and 1948 treaties, joined in voicing Nordic concern over the coup against Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, and gave increasing unofficial encouragement to Baltic independence. At the same time, by replacing the Soviet-Finnish mutual assistance pact with treaties on general cooperation and trade, Finns put themselves on an equal footing while retaining a friendly bilateral relationship. Finland now is boosting cross-border commercial ties and touting its potential as a commercial gateway to Russia. It has reassured Russia that it will not raise claims for Finnish territory seized by the U.S.S.R. and continues to reaffirm the importance of good bilateral relations.====Multilateral Relations====Finnish foreign policy emphasizes its participation in multilateral organizations. Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and the EU in 1995. As noted, the country also is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Partnership for Peace as well as a member in the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. As a NATO partner, Finland had 100 troops in Afghanistan as of September 2007. Finland is well represented in the UN civil service in proportion to its population and belongs to several of its specialized and related agencies. Finnish troops have participated in UN peacekeeping activities since 1956, and the Finns continue to be one of the largest per capita contributors of peacekeepers in the world. Finland is an active participant in the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and in early 1995 assumed the co-chairmanship of the OSCE's Minsk Group on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. Cooperation with the other Scandinavian countries also is important to Finland, and it has been a member of the Nordic Council since 1955. Under the council's auspices, the Nordic countries have created a common labor market and have abolished immigration controls among themselves. The council also serves to coordinate social and cultural policies of the participating countries and has promoted increased cooperation in many fields. In addition to the organizations already mentioned, Finland became a member of the following organizations: Bank for International Settlements, 1930; International Monetary Fund, 1948; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1948; General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 1950; International Finance Corporation, 1956; International Development Association, 1960; European Free Trade Association, 1961; Asian Development Bank, 1966; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1969; Inter-American Development Bank, 1977; African Development Bank, 1982; Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, 1988; the Council of Europe, 1989; European Bank for Reconstruction and Development in Central and Eastern Europe, 1991; World Trade Organization, 1995; and INTELSAT, 1999. Finland entered Stage Three of EMU (the European Monetary Union) in 1999. All the Nordic countries, including Finland, joined the Schengen area in March 2001.[[File:Logs in Yyteri 2009.JPG|thumb|left|300px|Logs in Yyteri.]]Finland has an industrial economy based on abundant forest resources, capital investments, and high technology. The Finnish economy has made enormous strides since the severe recession of the early 1990s. Finland successfully joined the euro zone and has outperformed euro-area partners in terms of economic growth and public finance. In the last few years, the Finnish economy has performed reasonably well. Total output was 5% higher in 2006 than in 2005, but economic activity leveled off in the latter half of the year. GDP is predicted to grow by 4.4% in 2007, while 2008 is likely to show a slower rate of growth, estimated at 3.3%. Despite the current favorable outlook, there is a degree of uncertainty in the Finnish economy caused by the large fluctuations in electronics industry production, together with resource constraints. Cost and price pressures have increased, and there is a threat of industry’s price competitiveness starting to weaken.Unemployment decreased significantly from 1994 to 7.7% in 2006 and is expected to drop to 6.7% in 2007. A relatively inflexible labor market and high employer-paid social security taxes hamper growth in employment. Labor bottlenecks are becoming more common in certain sectors, and this will increasingly restrict growth in output in the future. The main constraint to medium-term economic growth will be the drop in the population of working age once the post-war baby boomers reach retirement age.[[File:Headquarters of Nokia Keilaniemi Finland..jpg|thumb|The headquarters of Nokia Corporation in Keilaniemi, Espoo, 2005.]]Exports of goods and services contribute 32% of Finland's GDP. Metals and engineering (including electronics) and timber (including pulp and paper) are Finland's main industries. The United States is Finland's third most important trading partner outside of Europe. With a 3.8% share of imports in 2006, the United States was Finland's seventh-largest supplier. The total value of U.S. exports to Finland in 2006 was $2.6 billion. Major exports from the United States to Finland continue to be machinery, telecommunications equipment and parts, aircraft and aircraft parts, computers, peripherals and software, electronic components, chemicals, medical equipment, and some agricultural products. The primary competition for American companies comes from Russia, Germany, Sweden, and China. The main export items from Finland to the United States are electronics, machinery, ships and boats, paper and paperboard, refined petroleum products, telecommunications equipment and parts. In 2006, the United States was Finland's fourth-largest customer after Germany (11.3%), Sweden (10.5%), and Russia (10.1%), with an export share of 6.5%, or $5 billion. However, trade is only part of the totality: the 10 biggest Finnish companies in the United States have a combined turnover that is three times the value of Finland's total exports to the United States. About 2.3% of the Finnish GDP comes from exports to the United States. Except for timber and several minerals, Finland depends on imported raw materials, energy, and some components for its manufactured products. Farms tend to be small, but farmers own sizable timber stands that are harvested for supplementary income in winter. The country's main agricultural products are dairy, meat, and grains. Finland's EU accession has accelerated the process of restructuring and downsizing of this sector. *GDP: $210.8 billion (EUR 167.9 billion).*Per capita income: $40,036 (EUR 31,886).*Inflation rate: 1.6% (2006 average); 2.6% (September 2007).*Natural resources: Forests, minerals (copper, zinc, iron), farmland.*Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting (2.9% of GDP): Products--meat (pork and beef), grain (wheat, rye, barley, oats), dairy products, potatoes, rapeseed. *Industry (30.1% of GDP): Types--metal (including electronics and electrical equipment) and engineering, forest products, chemicals, shipbuilding, foodstuffs, textiles.*Trade: Exports--$77.08 billion. Major markets--EU 56.9%, Russia 10.1%, U.S. 6.5%, China 3.2%. Imports--$68.9 billion. Major suppliers--EU 55.3%, Russia 14.1%, China 7.5%, U.S. 3.8%.[[File:Johan Ludvig Runeberg statue Finland.jpg|thumb|left|Johan Ludvig Runeberg statue.]]The origins of the Finnish people are still a matter of conjecture, although many scholars argue that their original home was in what is now west-central [[Siberia]]. The Finns arrived in their present territory thousands of years ago, pushing the indigenous Lapps into the more remote northern regions. Finnish and Lappish--the language of Finland's small Lapp minority--both are Finno-Ugric languages and are in the Uralic rather than the Indo-European family. Finland's nearly 700-year association with the Kingdom of [[Sweden]] began in 1154 with the introduction of Christianity by Sweden's King Eric. During the ensuing centuries, Finland played an important role in the political life of the Swedish-Finnish realm, and Finnish soldiers often predominated in Swedish armies. Finns also formed a significant proportion of the first "Swedish" settlers in 17th-century America. Following Finland's incorporation into Sweden in the 12th century, Swedish became the dominant language, although Finnish recovered its predominance after a 19th-century resurgence of Finnish nationalism. Publication in 1835 of the Finnish national epic, The Kalevala--a collection of traditional myths and legends--first stirred the nationalism that later led to Finland's independence from Russia. In 1809, Finland was conquered by the armies of Czar Alexander I and thereafter remained an autonomous grand duchy connected with the Russian Empire until the end of 1917. On December 6, 1917, shortly after the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, Finland declared its independence. In 1918, the country experienced a brief but bitter civil war that colored domestic politics for many years. During [[World War II]], Finland fought the [[Soviet Union]] twice--in the [[Winter War]] of 1939-40 and again in the [[Continuation War]] of 1941-44. This was followed by the [[Lapland War]] of 1944-45, when Finland fought against the Germans as they withdrew their forces from northern Finland. During the Continuation War (1941-1944) Finland was a co-belligerent with [[Germany]]. However, Finnish Jews were not persecuted. Of the approximately 500 Jewish refugees who arrived in Finland, eight were handed over to the Germans, for which Finland submitted an official apology in 2000.[http://www.uta.fi/~tuulikki.vuonokari/fin-1.html Jews in Finland During World War II]  Also during the war, approximately 2,600 Soviet prisoners of war were exchanged for 2,100 Finnish prisoners of war from Germany. In 2003, the Simon Wiesenthal Center submitted an official request for a full-scale investigation by the Finnish authorities of the prisoner exchange. It was established there were about 70 Jews among the extradited prisoners but none was extradited as a result of ethnic background or religious belief.Treaties signed in 1947 and 1948 with the Soviet Union included obligations and restraints on Finland vis-a-vis the U.S.S.R. as well as territorial concessions by Finland; both have been abrogated by Finland since the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union. {{Template:Copyright Details (US Government)}}[[Category:European Countries]][[Category:Christian-Majority Countries]]

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Autism

(Difference between revisions)Autistic people lack the ability to relate to others and are unable to mentalize - they can not understand the mental state of others. This means they are unlikely to have a relationship with [[God]] on a personal level and often tend to be atheists. Being unable mentalize also means lacking the ability to think teleologically (to be able to see a purpose in things), so when autistic people do speak of God it is usually in terms of a set of rules rather than anything personified.http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/psyched/201205/does-autism-lead-atheismhttp://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2039690/Atheism-autism-Controversial-new-study-points-link-two.htmlAutistic people lack the ability to relate to others and are unable to mentalize - they can not understand the mental state of others. This means they are unlikely to have a relationship with [[God]] on a personal level and often tend to be atheists, although some do end up being religious. Being unable mentalize also means lacking the ability to think teleologically (to be able to see a purpose in things), so when autistic people do speak of God it is usually in terms of a set of rules rather than anything personified.http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/psyched/201205/does-autism-lead-atheismhttp://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2039690/Atheism-autism-Controversial-new-study-points-link-two.html==Interventions and Treatments====Interventions and Treatments==

Autism is a type of pervasive developmental disorder. It is characterized by difficulties with social interaction; difficulties with verbal communication, especially pragmatic language; difficulty processing nonverbal communication such as facial expression; intense, narrow interests; difficulty adjusting to changes in routine; and repetitive behaviors. Other signs include lack of eye contact, delayed or unusual play skills, hypo- or hyper-sensitivity to sensory stimuli, and anxiety.[1] It is usually detected by the time a child is four years old but in some cases, autism goes unnoticed into adulthood. There are many intelligent and talented autistic individuals.[2] The term autism was first used in 1912.

Diagnoses of autism has increased from 1:10,000 in 1988 to as high as 1 in 150 people,[3] and it has been rising. Four times as many boys suffer from autism as girls.[4] Among boys, 1 in 94 has the disorder. In New Jersey, which has the highest rate in the nation, 1 in every 60 boys has autism and 1 in every 94 children is affected. There is a seizure disorder in about one-third of those who have autism.[4]

Autism is said to exist on a "spectrum;" that is, there is a wide range of how this disorder affects people. Other pervasive developmental disorders on the "autism spectrum" include Asperger's Syndrome, Pervasive Developmental Disorder - Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS), Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, and Rett's Syndrome. There are many degrees of functioning in individuals with autism. Because of this, all individuals diagnosed with autism will not exhibit the same characteristics, or exhibit them to the same degree.

Autism was first identified clinically in 1943 by Dr. Leo Kanner. Dr. Hans Asperger also did some research into autism at about the same time and discovered Asperger's syndrome. As early as the 1990's, many intervention strategies, including Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA therapy), were used to treat autism or mitigate its symptoms.

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Although no one knows how autism develops, experts have focused on physical causes such as environmental toxins, the vaccine preservative thimerosal, and the diet of both the mother (pre-birth and during breastfeeding) and child. Recent scientific studies indicate that thimerosal in vaccines does not cause autism.[5][6][7] Some experts have speculated about genetic predisposition.

Lisa Jo Rudy, mother of an autistic boy, wrote:

Today, it is generally agreed that autism is caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors -- and unrelated to "cold mothering." [1]

The Autism Society says, "Researchers are investigating problems during pregnancy or delivery as well as environmental factors, such as viral infections, metabolic imbalances, and exposure to environmental chemicals." [2]

There are two popular theories linking autism and vaccines. One theory suggests the MMR (Mumps-Measles-Rubella) vaccine causes intestinal problems which lead to the development of autism. This theory was based on the research of Dr. Andrew Wakefield, who conducted a study using 12 children to make the connection between autism and the MMR vaccine. However, a recent investigation of this study has concluded that Dr. Wakefield manipulated patient data to support his conclusion, and used questionable research practices when obtaining blood samples from the children in the study. [8] The second theory suggests that thimerosal, a mercury-based preservative used in some vaccines, could be a contributor of the development of autism. [3]

There are claims that environmental toxins increase the risk of autism, just as they increase the risk of cancer. New Jersey has the highest rate of cancer in the nation, presumably due to a heavy concentration of environmental toxins, and it also has the highest rate of autism. Autistic patients are observed to have higher levels of metals and other toxins.

A toxic mercury preservative used in vaccines, thimerosal, is a suspected cause of injury in many recipients, including a cause of increase in autism rates.[9] Thimerosal is an organic form of mercury that was widely used as a preservative. Only after intense public pressure did the FDA and CDC act, in 1999 and 2000, to reduce thimerosal usage in vaccines. But thimerosal continues to be used far more than realized, as in the annual flu vaccine and stockpiles of vaccines left over from years ago. Since thimerosal was removed from childhood vaccines in 2001, U.S. rates of autism have increased rather than declined, suggesting that thimerosal was not a contributor to autism.[10][11]

The is enormous pressure to deny that vaccinations are causing autism, as such a revelation would result in political, legal, and financial consequences for those who have been supporting increases in vaccination. As researchers denied smoking caused lung cancer for decades, researchers now claim that vaccination is not causing autism.[12][13][14] Many parents who see first-hand the changes in their children immediately shortly after vaccination see a clear cause-and-effect, and some are opting out of vaccination.[15]

Thimerosal is not the only ingredient of vaccines that may be causing the increase in autism. By assaulting the immune system at a very young age, multiple vaccinations may be doing other harm that is not yet fully understood. Autism is a neurological condition, and side effects of vaccination are known to cause other neurological problems.

"Rigorous scientific studies have not identified links between autism and either thimerosal-containing vaccine or the measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine" [16]

Some experts suspect that there is a genetic susceptibility to autism.[17][18][19][20][21] The genetics of this condition are not fully understood; perhaps caused by complex interactions between multiple genes which would account for the "spectrum" like differences in the severity of many cases [22][23]

Simon Baron-Cohen, director of the Autism Research Centre at the University of Cambridge (U.K.) says that males and females are hardwired for different behavior, with boys tending to be stronger at mechanics, categorizing and systemizing information, mathematics, etc. and girls stronger at emotionalizing and empathizing. He has proposed that autism is merely an extreme version of the male brain type, in which the (female) urge to empathize is nearly absent and the brain is almost entirely hardwired for the (male) tasks of systemizing.[24]

Leo Kanner in a 1949 paper identified "parental coldness" and a "lack of maternal warmth" in the parents of autistic children, leading to the term refrigerator mother. The theory here is autism is caused by incomplete socialization during early childhood because of emotionally cold parents. The book Toxic Psychiatry by Peter Briggin notes that the frigid mother theory of autism was abandoned in recent years due to pressure groups.[25]

Lenny Schafer, editor of the Schafer Autism Report, rejects outright the current characterization of mild social retardation (such as "Asperger's syndrome") as forms of autism. He notes that autism is a disability, and if a person is not disabled from participation in society by their condition, in such areas as being able to hold a job or communicate, including communication over the Internet, they are not autistic and should not be diagnosed as such. He accordingly rejects that there can be such a thing as autistic self-advocacy, as anyone who is truly autistic would not have that ability.[26] This view is highly controversial in the field, and has led to the development of the "autistic spectrum" to better characterize and diagnose autism and autism-like disorders.

Wired magazine has referred to autism as a "geek syndrome", or essentially as a form of identity-politics-for-computer-nerds.[27]. Those favoring this interpretation of autism have coined new terminology, including "neurodiversity" for a population with and without autistic individuals , and using the term "neurotypical" for those without autism.

According to the DSM-IV, autism is characterized by the following:

1. A significant impairment is social interactions.

a. Impaired non-verbal communication. b. Failure to develop age-appropriate social relationships c. Lack of emotional reciprocity

2. Impaired communication.

a. Delay or lack of age-appropriate verbal communication. b. If speech development is age-appropriate, an impaired ability to initiate or sustain conversation. c. Repetitive or idiosyncratic speech patterns. d. Absence of, or significantly reduced engagement in, age-appropriate social play.

3. Repetitive, stereotyped, or "obsessive" behavior.

a. Abnormal preoccupation with a limited interest or interests. b. Abnormal adherence to behavioral routines and rituals. c. Repetitive mannerisms or movements.

Autistic people lack the ability to relate to others and are unable to mentalize - they can not understand the mental state of others. This means they are unlikely to have a relationship with God on a personal level and often tend to be atheists, although some do end up being religious. Being unable mentalize also means lacking the ability to think teleologically (to be able to see a purpose in things), so when autistic people do speak of God it is usually in terms of a set of rules rather than anything personified.[28][29]

Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) - This is a behavioral intervention which applies the study of behavioral analysis, as well as the tools of this study, toward assisting behaviors of social significance in individuals of many different populations, including children with autism. [30] Applied behavior analysis is used to increase positive behaviors, decrease interfering behaviors, maintain positive behaviors, teach new skills, and generalize new positive behaviors across many different settings, not just in a restrictive classroom or therapy setting. Therapists begin by observing the behaviors of the individual, focusing on skills and behaviors to reinforce or teach, and identifying interfering behaviors to be minimized. They then develop an intervention plan to reinforce the positive behaviors and skills, by using a system of rewards when the individual receiving the therapy exhibits the behavior that the therapist wants to observe. As the individual incorporates more positive behaviors, the therapist may decrease or change the reinforcement as necessary. Developmental, Individual difference and Relationship-based (DIR/Floortime) model - This is a relationship-based intervention, developed by Dr. Stanley Greenspan, which focuses on developing a connection with the individual with autism, emphasizing the role his or her interests, emotions, and preferences play in developing an effective treatment. [31] This model emphasizes individual differences in children with autism, and requires caregivers and therapists to approach each child accordingly. It begins with understanding the child's developmental stage, understanding the ways in which the child understands and learns information and processes sensory stimuli, and developing relationships between the child and his or her caregivers and therapists, who tailor their affect and interactions to the child's needs. This model especially emphasizes the importance of parents and caregivers in the process of their child's treatment, because of their unique relationship to the child. Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communication-handicapped CHildren (TEACCH) - This approach was developed in the early 1970s by Eric Schopler and colleagues, and focuses on skil development, as well as fulfillment of human needs such as communication, social interaction, increasing feelings of safety and reducing anxiety, and engaging in productive and enjoyable activities.[32] The principles of the TEACCH method of intervention include: understanding the "culture" of autism (what characterizes individuals with autism, such as their thinking patterns and behaviors), developing an individualized approach to intervention for each individual, structuring the physical environment for effective learning, and using visual supports to assist in understanding and retaining routines, structures, and schedules, as well as to make individual tasks understandable.

As with many other children with special needs, homeschooling autistic children can provide a special environment which allows them to florish.

http://homeschooling.gomilpitas.com/weblinks/autism.htm

A large body of assistance is available for parents who wish to homeschool their autistic children, including here on Conservapedia.

http://www.autismspeaks.org/ http://www.autismdigest.com/ http://www.nationalautismassociation.org/ http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServer http://www.autismlink.com/ Opposing Views: Are Autism and Vaccines Linked? Neurodiversity - An Incredible Resource for Autism Related Information http://homeschoolaustralia.com/index/specialneeds.html Homeschooling Australia's Autism Page ? http://www.webmd.com/brain/autism/development-disorder?page=2? Temple Grandin, "Thinking in Pictures, Expanded Edition: My Life with Autism" amazon link http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0307275655/ref=wl_it_dp/103-3432247-4184629?ie=UTF8&coliid=I1CWNFSEUCIXQL&colid=49VN3HJC5OQK? http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/faq_prevalence.htm? 4.0 4.1 http://www.iupui.edu/~psycdept/autism/autism.htm? C. S. Price et al., "Prenatal and Infant Exposure to Thimerosal From Vaccines and Immunoglobulins and Risk of Autism". Pediatrics 126(4):656-64 (2010)? W. A. Orenstein et al., "Global Vaccination Recommendations and Thimerosal". Pediatrics 131(1):149-51 (2013)? G. A. Poland, "MMR Vaccine and Autism: Vaccine Nihilism and Postmodern Science". Mayo Clin Proc. 86(9):869-71 (2011): "No credible scientific evidence, however, supports the claim that the MMR vaccine causes autism, and indeed, national medical authorities and scientific professional societies have unanimously denounced that claim"? http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article5683671.ece? [http://209.85.141.104/search?q=cache:952MmAWeCOsJ:www.jpands.org/vol8no1/geier.pdf+jpands&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us&client=firefox-a Thimerosal in Childhood Vaccines, Neurodevelopment Disorders, and Heart Disease in the United States]? http://www.cdc.gov/vaccinesafety/Concerns/thimerosal/thimerosal_faqs.html#6? http://www.nationalautismassociation.org/autismincreases.php? http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13703.html,? http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B75KN-4DJ97VJ-8&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=c555dd340aa6cb7c3a18806ba0fd162a? http://www.iom.edu/?id=27771? http://www.acsh.org/publications/pubID.425/pub_detail.asp? http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19614825?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_SingleItemSupl.Pubmed_Discovery_RA&linkpos=1&log$=relatedreviews&logdbfrom=pubmed? http://healthland.time.com/2011/06/09/studies-new-clues-to-the-genetic-roots-of-autism/? http://www.foxnews.com/health/2011/08/11/autism-adhd-share-genetic-similarities/? http://www.latimes.com/health/la-he-autism-20110815,0,3154651.story? Happé F, Ronald A. The 'fractionable autism triad': a review of evidence from behavioural, genetic, cognitive and neural research. Neuropsychol Rev. 2008;18(4):287–304? Freitag CM. The genetics of autistic disorders and its clinical relevance: a review of the literature. Mol Psychiatry. 2007;12(1):2–22. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001896. PMID 17033636? http://66.102.1.104/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=cache:7kMNqvTgRtoJ:www.ikhebeenvraag.be/mediastorage/FSDocument/52/Freitag-2.pdf+? http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17764594? Baron-Cohen, Simon. The Essential Difference, Basic Books 2003.? Briggin, Peter R. Toxic Psychiatry, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991.? http://www.sarnet.org/? http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers_pr.html? http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/psyched/201205/does-autism-lead-atheism? http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2039690/Atheism-autism-Controversial-new-study-points-link-two.html? http://www.centerforautism.com/getting_started/aba.asp? http://www.icdl.com/dirFloortime/overview/index.shtml? http://www.teacch.com/whatis.html

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Voting Rights Act

(Difference between revisions)Sections 2 and 5 are the most important parts of the Voting Rights Act.  Section 2 prohibits racial discrimination in elections nationwide, and is relatively non-controversial.  But Section 5 imposes "temporary" restrictions on certain "covered" regions that require those regions (9 states, mostly in the South, are covered in whole, and another 7 states are covered in part) to obtain pre-clearance by the federal government for any changes in election procedures.  This "temporary" restriction was intended to last only five years, but has been repeatedly been extended, most recently in 2006 for another 25 years.Sections 2 and 5 are the most important parts of the Voting Rights Act.  Section 2 prohibits racial discrimination in elections nationwide, and is relatively non-controversial.  But Section 5 imposes "temporary" restrictions on certain "covered" regions that require those regions (9 states, mostly in the South, are covered in whole, and another 7 states are covered in part) to obtain pre-clearance by the federal government for any changes in election procedures.  This "temporary" restriction was intended to last only five years, but has been repeatedly been extended, most recently in 2006 for another 25 years.Section 4 provides the formula for which jurisdictions are covered by Section 5.  Sections 4 and 5 are being challenged in ''Shelby County v. Holder'', to be decided by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] in 2013.Section 4 provides the formula for which jurisdictions are covered by Section 5.  The formula was struck down by the Supreme Court in 2013 in the case ''Shelby County v. Holder''The Act also outlawed literacy tests that once limited the right to vote in some areas to those who could read, as well as so-called "Grandfather Clauses".The Act also outlawed literacy tests.

The National Voting Rights Act of 1965[1] authorized, and in some areas required, federal oversight of elections. Many (but not all) of these areas were in the Democratically controlled South. The Act gave the Department of Justice the power to approve or reject any change in a voting law in certain districts where less than 50% of the population were registered to vote in 1964.

Sections 2 and 5 are the most important parts of the Voting Rights Act. Section 2 prohibits racial discrimination in elections nationwide, and is relatively non-controversial. But Section 5 imposes "temporary" restrictions on certain "covered" regions that require those regions (9 states, mostly in the South, are covered in whole, and another 7 states are covered in part) to obtain pre-clearance by the federal government for any changes in election procedures. This "temporary" restriction was intended to last only five years, but has been repeatedly been extended, most recently in 2006 for another 25 years.

Section 4 provides the formula for which jurisdictions are covered by Section 5. The formula was struck down by the Supreme Court in 2013 in the case Shelby County v. Holder

The Act also outlawed literacy tests.

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The Act was passed by the U.S. Congress over strong opposition within the Democratic Party. President Lyndon Johnson asked Republican Minority Leader Everett Dirksen for help [2] in breaking the Democratic filibuster. Dirksen spoke on the Senate floor,

The time has come for equality of opportunity in sharing of government, in education, and in employment. It must not be stayed or denied. It is here!

Under Johnson, the Senate had not been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a Civil Rights Bill. With Republican support, the final count showed 44 Democrats and 27 Republicans voting to end the filibuster, with 23 Democrats and only 6 Republicans opposed. The formal Senate vote on the bill took place on June 19, 1964. It passed overwhelmingly, 73-27.

The final Senate vote on August 4 was 49 Democrats and 30 Republicans in favor, one Republican and 17 Democrats opposed. Segregationists who voted against the Voting Rights Act were J. William Fulbright [3], awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Bill Clinton, and Al Gore, Sr., father of Democratic Presidential Nominee Al Gore.

In December 1989 a three-judge district federal court found that Bill Clinton had violated the Voting Rights Act. The Supreme Court upheld the findings of fact in Clinton vs Jeffers [4] that the Arkansas governor and future Democratic president violated the Voting Rights Act. The Supreme Court Justices wrote,

Bill Clinton does not dispute here -- that violations of the fourteenth or fifteenth amendment justifying equitable relief have occurred in Arkansas. In May 1990, the district court turned to those claims, holding that "the State of Arkansas has committed a number of constitutional violations of the voting rights of black citizens." J.S. App. A5. In particular, the court determined that the "State has systematically and deliberately enacted new majority-vote requirements for municipal offices, in an effort to frustrate black political success in elections traditionally requiring only a plurality to win." In 1990...Devotion to majority rule for local offices lay dormant as long as the plurality system produced white office-holders. But whenever black candidates used this system successfully -- and victory by a plurality has been virtually their only chance of success in at-large elections in majority-white cities – the response was swift and certain. Laws were passed in an attempt to close off this avenue of black political victory.

The court concluded these series of laws passed under Clinton

represents a systematic and deliberate attempt to reduce black political opportunity. Such an attempt is plainly unconstitutional. It replaces a system in which blacks could and did succeed, with one in which they almost certainly cannot.

And most pointedly the

inference of racial motivation is inescapable.

Although the Act is over 40 years old and addresses issues from the early 1960s and before, in 2006 Congress passed a 25-year extension without meaningful debate. 33 House members opposed the 25-year extension, primarily because of the imposition of multilingual balloting. Not a single senator, however, voted against it, and President George W. Bush signed it into law.

The law now imposes a complex system of regulations that include forcing local governments to print multilingual ballots at their own expense, in many different foreign languages. It requires federal registration of voters in regions where less than 50% of minorities are registered.

In recent years it has enabled liberals in Washington, D.C. to block reforms such as voter ID sought by local jurisdictions in 16 states. However, it should be noted that Georgia's voter ID law was precleared and that a three-judge panel allowed South Carolina's voter ID law to take effect (albeit modified by a state interpretation during the trial).[5] The entire State of Texas was subjected to ongoing federal control of its elections until it successfully bails out of being a covered jurisdiction in part because Texas once printed its ballots in English rather than Spanish. Texas has also had more objections to changes in its voting procedures from 1966 to 2004 than any other covered state.[6]

? 42 U.S.C. § 1973-1973aa-6? Everett McKinley Dirksen's Finest Hour: June 10, 1964, The Peoria Journal Star, June 10, 2004, retrieved from The Dirksen Congressional center 05/20/07.? Picking the Team, TIME Magazine, December 12, 1960.? Findings of the Supreme Court of the United States in Clinton vs Jeffers No. 90-394 (1990) on appeal 730 F. Supp. 196, 198-201 (ED Ark. 1989) (three-judge court), aff'd, No. 89-2008 (Jan. 7, 1991).? South Carolina v. United States (D.D.C. 2012)? Northwest Austin Mun. Utility Dist. No. One v. Mukasey 573 F.Supp.2d. 221, 281 (D.D.C. 2008)

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